Display to header level
Human engineered landscapes are areas that have been the focus of intense human activity. In general, they require significant effort to maintain and, if not properly cared for, can present a hazard to the landowner, visitors, and neighbors, and compromise other natural resources. The value of these artificial cover types for native plants and animals is variable, but can be improved through stewardship strategies like supporting native plant species.
Human engineered cover types (also called “artificial,” “cultural,” or “anthropogenic” cover types) are those that are a result of modifications to the natural landscape such as paving, landscaping associated with buildings and other structures, and agriculture, including crop land and pasture. These are landscapes that are or have been the focus of intense human activity. In general, they require significant effort to maintain and, if not properly cared for, can present a hazard to the landowner, visitors, and neighbors, and compromise other natural resources. The value of these artificial cover types for native plants and animals is variable. The degree to which each cover type can support native species depends on how much it can be modified (i.e. “naturalized”) and continue to perform its intended function. For example, the value of an artificial pond may increase if the area around it is converted to forest, shrubland, or meadow; or, it could be converted to a vegetated wetland, generally increasing its wildlife value, but losing its recreational (fishing, boating) function. Stormwater basins can be somewhat naturalized through less frequent mowing and the planting of native trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Lawn, however, can only become natural land by converting it to another cover type. The landowner needs to weigh the benefits of naturalizing these areas with the loss of the original function when planning their long-term stewardship.
Over 35% of Pennsylvania is considered developed cover, including 26% that are former natural lands converted to agricultural use. Artificial ponds, lakes, surface mines, lands used for energy development, and recreational areas such as golf courses also contribute to the human engineered landscape. In the following sections, we present recommendations for management of these human engineered systems, focusing on minimizing the negative ecological impacts associated with their development and maintenance. Additionally, we present detailed guidelines for minimizing their negative impacts.
The following are recommendations to minimize the negative environmental impacts associated with human development, for all forms of artificial or human engineered systems.
Maintain Native Vegetation: Human-engineered areas are created to promote one type of use (solar farms, cemeteries, golf courses, etc.), but there may be areas within the sites that are still in natural cover or could be converted to natural cover. These areas, if regularly maintained and composed of native species, provide opportunities to support native plant and animal species. Potential natural areas are likeliest to be in locations not used for the primary purpose of the site. They require specific maintenance regimes that favor native species over turf grass, pavement, or other artificial cover. For example, a woodlot can be managed to support native plants and wildlife rather than left to degrade over time or cleared. Small meadows can be created as demonstration sites to educate visitors about conservation the benefits of native habitats within road-sides and rights-of-way. See Forest Management, Grassland and Meadow Management, and Shrubland Management for conversion and management recommendations for each natural cover type.
Control Invasive Species: Poorly maintained human engineered systems such as road corridors and transmission rights-of-way provide ideal conditions for non-native, invasive plants to thrive, as they often take advantage of disturbed and periodically maintained habitats. Furthermore, these features can facilitate dispersal of invasive plants beyond the site into adjacent lands. Evaluating the site for possible threats from invasive plants prior to development will help land managers plan for future management. Regular assessment of the developed area and regular maintenance will reduce the potential for invasive species to spread into adjacent natural areas (see the Invasive Plants chapter).
Minimize Fragmentation Impacts by Managing Edge: Fragmentation is the breaking up of habitat into more dispersed and smaller patches. This creates isolated areas of habitat that can support lower wildlife populations and fewer species and are more difficult for species to move between—essentially “islands”. It is also an issue as some species require large stretches of habitat which fragmented parcels cannot provide. For example, interior forest birds are a group of species, mostly neotropical migrants, that require forested habitat that is greater than 100 meters (~305 ft) from the edges of the forest patch. Forested edges are home to species that thrive in early successional habitats, species that are more tolerant of disturbances, human activity, predators, and competitors. Fragmentation also increases the risk of invasive plants near the edge of a patch, as these species thrive in the disturbed areas that are less conducive to native plants than the interior spaces. Some fragmentation effects can extend even beyond 100 meters from the edge. Therefore, edges of natural areas should be managed to further reduce the impact of fragmentation. Techniques to reduce the impacts of fragmentation include “feathering” the edges of forests by making the edges softer, allowing trees to sprout up as shrubs through coppice (cutting trees back to the base periodically to maintain short stature), or planting species such as Virginia pine or eastern red cedar to screen the interior. Invasive plant control within edge environments can prevent their expansion into the habitat interior, especially when natural disturbance events create light gaps in the canopy where invasives can colonize.
Artificial ponds are open bodies of water formed by damming a stream or through the excavation of an area with a high water table or a natural water source (springs or seeps). The original construction of a pond may have been for irrigation, fire control, water supply, or flood control, and for their aesthetic appeal. Ponds can provide some benefits, including environmental (silt traps for associated streams), ecological (habitat for aquatic plants and animals), and recreational (fishing, boating) benefits, and they can be an attractive part of the landscape. However, the maintenance costs and liability concerns associated with ponds and their impacts on water quality often outweigh these benefits. Unless shaded or very small, they can elevate water temperatures of associated streams (particularly if outflow is from the surface), block the migration of aquatic organisms, and, if surrounded by lawn, attract large numbers of Canada geese, which further degrade the water through their droppings. From a basic stewardship perspective, they also can require costly, specialized maintenance, including periodic dredging and dam repairs, and they can be an attractive nuisance. In this handbook, we will address only ponds that are relatively small, manmade, and part of larger existing or potential natural lands.
Benefits to regional conservation priorities
Negative issues
There are two management options for artificial ponds:
This is the preferred option if there are sufficient funds to improve and maintain the existing resource and if water-based recreation, fishing, or education are conservation priorities or open water habitats are important to support wildlife. It is recommended that the pond be buffered by natural cover (forest, shrubland, or meadow, or a combination). The buffer should have a width of at least 100 feet to be effective. Contact the US Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PA DEP), or local Conservation District to make sure all current regulations are followed when undertaking pond restoration and maintenance.
This is the preferred option if there is no desire to preserve the pond and approval can be obtained from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PA DEP) for filling the pond or breaching the dam. Once the decision has been made to convert to natural cover, the desired cover type, which may be forest, shrubland, meadow, or wetland, will depend on the conservation needs, site conditions, and the available stewardship budget. One important restoration consideration is whether the artificial pond can be converted to a wetland, which depends on the natural hydrology of the site.
Land managers can use the Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program (PNHP) Pennsylvania Community Prediction Tool for Site Restoration, other online resources, or work with ecologists familiar with the area to determine the specific plant communities that will thrive at a restored site. Restoration practitioners often follow the natural successional process for the greatest potential for success when converting ponds: herbaceous meadow -to- shrubland -to- woodland -to- forest. To achieve restoration of native cover, (1) consult Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection or USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service recommendations for draining, removing structures, and filling; (2) regrade as needed to restore the natural contour (topography) of the site; (3) follow guidance below depending on the desired habitat management goals.
Native Meadow
This is often the easiest cover type to establishing following filling the pond or breaching a dam. After filling and restoring the area to its natural topography according to Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection recommendations, exposed ground should be seeded with a fast-growing, native, perennial grass such as Canada wild-rye, riverbank wild-rye, or Virginia wild-rye (or exotic annual rye, which produces fast cover but does not persist) to stabilize the exposed soil. From there, seeds of additional native species can be planted to create a native meadow (see Grassland and Meadow Management chapter).
Native Shrubland
Establishing a shrubland composed of native shrub species may be the preferred option if the conservation priority is threatened shrubland birds, the landowner has the resources to complete necessary stewardship tasks, and approval can be obtained from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection for filling the pond or breaching the dam. After filling and restoring the area to its natural topography according to Department of Environmental Protection recommendations, follow the guidelines under 3b in the Shrubland Management chapter to convert a pond to native shrubland.
Native Forest
Establishing native forest requires planting trees in the restored landscape. If establishing forest, the planting design should provide enough space between trees to allow for control of competing vegetation with available mowing equipment, but close enough for the canopy to close quickly. This will typically require a spacing of between 10 feet × 10 feet and 20 feet × 20 feet. The spacing can be more random if persistently wet soils or other conditions prohibit the use of heavy mowing equipment, in which case manual control of competing vegetation will be necessary. Select native species that are appropriate for the site (see Forest Management and Native Plants and Their Care chapters).
For best survival, planted trees should have 1–2 inch diameter trunks for hardwoods and be 6–8 feet tall for conifers. Use protective measures such as fencing, wire tree cages, or flexible tree guards to minimize deer damage. Reduce plant competition through selective herbicide application to kill vegetation around the base of each tree once or twice annually or mowing at least four times during the growing season until the canopy reaches 60% cover. After canopy closure, monitor for invasive plants and control as needed. Inspect annually for invasive species and treat as necessary.
Native Wetland
Finally, the artificial pond may be converted into a wetland. For this to be an option, wetland soils and wetland hydrology must be present on the site. This option and the specific tasks required to implement this strategy, along with potential funding opportunities, should be explored with representatives of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Conservation District, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, or US Fish and Wildlife Service (see Wetland Management).
Riparian Restoration
Another factor to consider is if the pond is connected to a natural stream. The conversion of in-stream ponds that restore the original stream channel is highly desirable because of the direct benefits to aquatic habitats and floodplain function. Conversion of off-stream ponds has a lesser benefit to water quality if they do not empty into a stream, so their conversion to a different cover type is driven more by maintenance costs and liability concerns. Conversion of in-stream ponds is a much more complicated process that involves removal of the dam and legacy sediments (the silt that builds up behind the dam) and the regrading and stabilization of the streambank. Ideally, a restoration specialist can locate the historical stream channel and regrade and plant the area to encourage its re-establishment. This option and the specific tasks required to implement this strategy, along with potential funding opportunities, should be explored with representatives of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, local Conservation District, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, or US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Lawn or landscaped areas can be desirable in community parks as they provide a place for a range of passive recreational activities such as picnics, dog walking, and informal ball games. They area also common around commercial buildings. However, they have little or no value for wildlife and can negatively impact natural resources. They also demand a high investment of resources, including financial costs and staff time, and have a high carbon footprint, due to the need for fossil fuels to manage the areas, and no value for carbon capture and sequestration, in contrast to high value for natural cover. Minimizing lawn and landscaped areas and careful management of the areas deemed essential can reduce negative effects while still allowing the public to enjoy them.
Proper management and following more natural practices can improve the health of lawn and surrounding natural areas. Simple steps for watering, such as watering in the morning or evening, or only watering new plants can reduce water use and improve absorption of water. Mowing lawns at a high mower setting, between 3 and 4 inches, and leaving grass clippings can improve grass health and reintroduce nutrients back into the soil as clippings decay. Natural compost from mulched leaves applied in the spring and fall can eliminate the use of chemical fertilizers, which pollute nearby waterways through stormwater runoff. Excess nutrients in streams and ponds cause algal blooms, decreased oxygen levels, and die-offs of fish and other aquatic animals. If chemical fertilizers are considered indispensable, care should be taken to apply only as much as will be absorbed by lawn grasses, and they should only be applied during dry periods when there is enough time for them to be absorbed before rain or watering.
Landscaping can complement natural communities and improve the designed spaces which are supported by natural areas. Trees can shade walking paths, gathering areas, and playgrounds. A diverse planting palette can add beauty by introducing a variety of colors, textures, and shapes to the landscape. Plantings can also serve more utilitarian functions, by guiding visitors along a path or buffering conflicting uses. Plant species used for landscaping should match those found nearby in the natural communities to provide a smooth transition between natural areas and designed spaces and to provide food and habitat for native animal species.
Native plant species should be used for landscaping to provide the best food and habitat for wildlife and to prevent the spread of invasive plants. Seeds are easily spread into natural areas from invasive species planted as ornamental features. Many invasive species have become established in the region after being used as popular landscape plants. Therefore, introduced species should not be planted and should be removed and replaced with native species if they are part of the existing landscaping. If the appropriate native plants are chosen for an area, meaning they are well adapted to the inherent environmental conditions, they require less maintenance when established, saving the property owner time and resources.
When choosing plants, avoid establishing monocultures by limiting each species to 30% or less of each vegetation layer. Monocultures increase the risk of pests and disease and limit the variety and seasonal availability of food sources for wildlife. Climate change should also be considered when choosing plants.
More information on choosing native plants can be found in the Wildlife Habitat and Native Plants and Their Care chapters.
Landscaping must be properly maintained to ensure that plants remain healthy and beautiful. “Mulch volcanoes,” the piling of mulch around trees’ trunks, are a common problem. Too much mulch retains moisture around the tree trunk and root collar, promoting disease and decay of the bark and decreasing the amount of accessible moisture, which can kill the tree. Instead, mulch should be applied in a 2 to 4 inches thick layer, leaving a 2-inch-wide space around the trunk base and root collar where no mulch is applied.
Landscaping trees should be included in a property’s hazard tree assessment program as they are often planted in areas of high visitor use. For more information on establishing an assessment program, see the Hazard Tree chapter.
Where an existing manicured lawn is not necessary and not utilized by visitors, it can be converted to natural cover to increase habitat area, improve stormwater infiltration, and decrease maintenance needs. Conversion to natural cover can improve air quality as the greater biomass of natural vegetation versus short lawn grasses results in larger amounts of carbon dioxide taken up and oxygen emitted. Conversion from lawn to a natural cover can also decrease the presence of year-round resident Canada geese, which are a nuisance to visitors and a potential source of water pollutants.
Lawn should be converted to forest cover if it is adjacent to established forests, can act as a connector between forest areas, is within the recommended riparian buffer width, or can improve the property’s aesthetics by acting as a visual screen. This cover type requires the most resources for establishment and early maintenance. See the Forest Management section for installation and management.
A shrubland can be created to provide habitat for threatened shrubland birds, but this will require the greatest commitment of resources to minimize the effects of deer and invasive plants. See the Shrubland Management section for establishment and management.
A grassland or meadow should be established if other grasslands or meadows are adjacent or there is high invasive species pressure from surrounding areas. A mix of species should be utilized to provide aesthetic beauty and habitat, food, and cover for wildlife, especially pollinators. See the Meadow Management section for establishment and maintenance recommendations. Small meadows can be created as demonstration sites to educate visitors about the benefits of meadows and to encourage them to reduce lawn on their own properties.
Proper stormwater management is vital to increase groundwater quantity and improve water quality. Lawns are actually an impediment to stormwater management because of the short leaves of turfgrasses and compacted soil which do not slow stormwater or filter it as it flows over the lawn and, very little water infiltrates into the ground. Additionally, turf grass has shallow roots, which do not absorb much water or stabilize soil. In heavy rain, water will puddle in flat lawn areas, and soil will erode where lawns have slopes. Eroded soil, fertilizers, and other lawn-maintenance chemicals typically wash off lawns, into stormwater systems, and ultimately into our streams. Impervious surfaces around turf areas only serve to compound this issue.
To mitigate this problem, stormwater management measures should be implemented to increase stormwater capture and infiltration. Often this employs green stormwater infrastructure (GSI), which aims to manage stormwater in more natural ways as opposed to using hard engineering like stormwater drains. Some GSI practices include:
The local conservation district can aid in planning green stormwater infrastructure.
Pennsylvania has a long history of energy development, from the discovery of oil in northwestern Pennsylvania in 1859, to surface and deep mining for coal and shallow natural gas development, to the recent shale-gas boom of the last decades. More environmentally friendly (from a carbon emission standpoint) energy development activities have been proposed and sited in Pennsylvania. Development of energy infrastructure, in all forms, requires the development of significant infrastructure (e.g. roads, pipelines, well pads, fields of solar panels, wind turbines) that has a direct impact to the integrity of natural areas. This may be due to the direct loss and fragmentation of intact landscapes or indirectly (e.g. facilitation of invasive species) that further reduce the quality and condition of adjacent habitat. Thus, energy development infrastructure is considered incompatible with natural area management and should be avoided. However, this is not always possible. Proper planning and siting of energy infrastructure can help avoid direct impacts to specific sites and reduce the indirect impacts associated with habitat fragmentation. Furthermore, steps can be taken to minimize and mitigate the negative impacts of energy infrastructure through better management of roads, rights-of-way, and other infrastructure features.
Surface mining of coal became widespread in the Appalachian region in the 1930s, without environmental protections. Following the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) in 1978, the primary federal law that regulates surface coal mining, coal companies must reclaim all mined lands after removal of the coal. At minimum, coal mines must restore the site to the landscape's natural contours and revegetate the disturbed area. While these lands formerly mined for coal are “reclaimed” by regulatory standards, the resulting landscape, composed of dense fields of introduced cool-season grasses, is vastly different than what was there prior to mining. Once a forested landscape, the former strip mine landscapes now resemble grasslands or prairies, with scattered trees and shrubs. The densely packed soil and rock removed from mined areas and thick mat of introduced grasses impede natural succession to forest resulting in a somewhat stable grassland ecosystem dominated by introduced species. Reclaimed strip mines dot the Pennsylvania landscape, making up nearly 10,000 acres according to the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PA DEP). These areas are significant habitats for a suite of grassland birds identified in the Pennsylvania State Wildlife Action Plan. These include bobolink, meadowlark, and rare species such as upland sandpiper, northern harrier, and vesper sparrow. Restoration of these lands must take into account the presence of species of greatest conservation need (SGCN), as designated by PNHP. While restoring forest will benefit forest wildlife species and sequester carbon, it may not benefit SGCNs. As such, restoration to a forested state may not be appropriate in all instances.
Thus, we recommend two different options for restoration and management of reclaimed strip mines dependent on goals. The first is to manage the site as a grassland to support SGCN grassland birds. The second is to restore the landscape to forest. Which option is preferred is dependent on the presence of grassland bird species and the landowners’ interest in forest restoration and goals for carbon storage and sequestration. These land management objectives are exclusionary, meaning landowners must make a decision to support grassland birds, or to restore forest.
Well plugging is the process of permanently retiring a well that is no longer economically productive or has reached the end of its useful life. The process can also be used for dry holes. Well plugging involves plugging the wellbore and securing it temporarily or permanently. The goal is to prevent fluids like oil, gas, or brine from moving upward. Additional actions may remove the well casing. The area around the well is then restored. Plug and abandon operations include site preparation, assessing soil conditions, and removing and salvaging available well bore casing, pipe, and equipment. Pipe may be cut and left in the wellbore, otherwise, this is removed. Cement plugs are placed in the borehole and are tested to prevent migration of fluids between different formations. The upper casing is cut below grade and the well is capped before the surface to match the surrounding environment. Well pad reclamation can follow restoration of forests on reclaimed mine lands. Well pads, of various sizes, are compacted sites in which steps must be taken to remediate soils prior to tree planting.
There is an increasing amount of literature and guidance for siting, selecting, planting, and maintaining solar installations. The strategy for managing solar farms is to make them as friendly to native vegetation and wildlife as possible. In the cases of previous agricultural land, mined land, and prior developed land (e.g. brown fields), the thoughtful design and planting within the site can actually increase the biodiversity value and provide an environmentally more friendly site than its previous use.
A strong focus of planting native vegetation is pollinator use. Given the size of many solar developments, the benefit for pollinators can be significant, especially in areas where native flowering plants are limited (e.g. within developed areas). Other wildlife can also utilize solar facilities, therefore, accommodation for small mammals, birds, and herptiles should be considered in the design of fencing and in the furnishing of specific habitats (e.g. bat boxes).
Plant selection will need to consider height to avoid shading the arrays. Plant selection should also consider the position within and among the arrays to take advantage of micro habitats such as sun versus shade availability and moisture levels as governed by the rain shadow of the individual and collective positioning of the arrays. There are lists of suitable plants which can be adjusted to suit the particular location and conditions through organizations like Ernst Seeds.
For solar installations from conception to completion and maintenance, consider:
Like other human engineered systems, roadsides and rights-of-way are not compatible with natural areas management. However, roads and rights-of-way are often nearby or adjacent to natural areas. Rigorous planning can protect migration corridors and prevent loss from the fragmenting roads and rights-of-way. Regularly maintained roadsides may work to minimize impacts from the roads and rights-of-way and may even provide an opportunity to support native plant and animal species if maintenance regimes are altered to favor native species rather than turf grass or pavement. Roadsides regularly support habitat for pollinators and rare plant species tolerant of regular maintenance. Converting roadsides from turf to native plants can have the added benefit of significantly reducing mowing needs. In non-natural areas, native plants can be incorporated into landscape plantings within the right of way, similar to the landscaped areas described above.
Best practices for roadsides and ROWs include:
While golf courses have a primary goal of supporting golf and the landscapes reflect that, there may still be opportunities to have a more positive environmental impact than traditional golf course management and landscaping. The first step is to assess the property to determine what areas are actively used for the golf course and what environmental features may be present like streams and woodlands. Areas not actively used for golfing can either be maintained in their current state if they are in natural vegetation or converted to native vegetation if current in lawn or fallow fields. See the Lawn section above for options to convert to native vegetation communities.
If waterways are present within the property, land managers can add riparian buffers where they will not interfere with the active golf areas. Ideally, these buffers would be forested with dense understories. However, they can also be made up of shrubs or herbaceous vegetation that is not regularly mown. Any of these options would better protect the waterways compared to turf.
Even in non-natural areas, native plants can be incorporated into landscape plantings around golf courses, similar to the landscaped areas described above. Aquatic native plants can also be added to water features. In addition to providing habitat for wildlife, particularly smaller wildlife like pollinators, these plantings can also capture stormwater runoff and filter out fertilizers often used on golf courses. Additionally, exotic plants can be replaced with natives, and invasive plants should absolutely be removed.
Audubon Internal has a golf course certification program called the Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program for Golf (ACSP for Golf). This program guides golf course managers in best practices for the care of the active golf course areas and surrounding natural areas. Their best management practices include additional recommendations such as:
Their program includes numerous other best management practices that can help golf course managers limit negative impacts to the environment and boost positive impacts. More information can be found on the Audubon International website.
There are also areas within Pennsylvania where interest in golf is waning and specific golf courses may no longer be in operation. These properties provide opportunities for conversion to natural areas or parks. The first step in this process is often for a conservation-minded owner such as a land trust or municipality to purchase the property. From there, the new owner, potentially with the assistance of a professional planning consultant, can assess the current conditions of the property and create a plan to convert the area to natural vegetation and recreation opportunities as desired. Depending on available resources, conversion to natural areas and/or a park may take multiple years and multiple phases.
To protect the property in perpetuity and potentially provide financial support, the area could be placed under a conservation easement if the land owner is willing and there is an accredited entity like a land trust or municipality to hold the easement. This would limit development on the property and prohibit certain practices, such as planting invasive species, that could degrade the property’s conservation value.
Cemeteries present another opportunity to incorporate native plantings and natural areas. While much of a cemetery may be used for burials, there may also be natural areas and waterways. If so, these areas can be protected and improved as was covered above for golf courses. For natural areas, land managers can implement stewardship actions such as controlling invasive plants and adding native species. More information by vegetation type can be found in the Forest, Shrubland, and Grassland Management chapters.
If waterbodies are present, riparian buffers should be added where feasible to protect water quality from stormwater runoff and associated pollutants. The highest quality buffers are forested with a dense understory. Where that is not a feasible option, shrubs or non-turf herbaceous plants can be used. More information on buffers can be found in the Water Quality chapter, and tree planting information can be found in the Native Plants and Their Care section.
Native plants can also be added to landscaped areas. Exotic, particularly invasive, plants can be removed and replaced with native species. Not only will this provide better habitat for wildlife, it can also reduce maintenance needs as native species require no fertilizers and minimal to no pruning. The Native Plants and Their Care section contains information on possible native species to use and planting techniques.
Agricultural land can either be a benefit for or detraction from environmental quality, particularly water quality. When properly managed, agricultural land can provide habitat while still maintaining productivity. If poorly managed, agricultural production can erode soil, remove wildlife habitat, and degrade water quality.
All land in agricultural production should have, at minimum, a soil and erosion plan approved by the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) to comply with the PA DEP. An NRCS staff member or certified planner from a partnering organization can provide a more comprehensive plan by assessing farm practices and conditions and providing recommendations to improve environmental conditions.
Cover cropping and contour farming are commonly used to reduce soil loss. Terraces, grass waterways, and diversions can direct and slow water flow. Edges and unusable land can be left in native vegetation to increase wildlife habitat. These common best management practices and many others can be discussed with a planner to determine which options are best for each farm field.
These plans are often funded through cost-sharing with NRCS. Once a farm has a plan in place, it can be eligible for NRCS funding to implement recommendations. Implementing their recommendations can help improve environmental quality and long-term crop production. Working with NRCS is voluntary.
Another option to reduce environmental impacts from agriculture is to convert to organic farming. According to the Rodale Institute, organic farming differs from conventional farming in that organic farming does not use synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or herbicides to manage farmland, nor do they use genetically modified crops. Instead, organic farmers look at creating a sustainable system that relies on natural interventions like composting, cover cropping, and rotational grazing to support land, crop, and animal health.
Because organic farming does not use synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or herbicides, there is less impact to surrounding waterways that would often be negatively impacted by chemicals in stormwater runoff. Additionally, organic farming practices focuses on building soil health. This can help soils capture carbon and infiltrate and store water, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and better managing stormwater.
There are hurdles to transitioning to organic farming, including financial costs. However, there are ways to get assistance. Contacting the Rodale Institute or Us Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service is a good starting point for assistance and guidance.
Across Pennsylvania, the iconic agricultural landscape of open fields and rolling hills is being converted to more suburban landscapes. However, farms can be conserved with agricultural easements, which protect the history of the region and critical agricultural land.
Under easements, landowners sell their development rights to a non-profit organization, municipality, or county. The landowner retains ownership and use of the land. However, they are restricted in the size or quantity of new buildings and impervious surfaces. Often, future development is permitted only within a certain area of the farm. The landowner may also be restricted in how they can manage areas of land where natural resource protection is deemed the highest priority (called high protection areas). Stream buffers and high quality woodlands are common examples of these high protection areas.
Once implemented, easements are legally tied to the land in perpetuity. This means that all future landowners will also be held to the terms of the easement. To compensate for the loss of development rights, the landowner can be paid for those rights upfront, or the landowner can donate the easement and receive a tax credit. If interested in an agricultural easement, landowners can reach out to their municipality or land conservancies working in the region.
Currently, agricultural easement funding is available through the Pennsylvania Farmland Preservation Program, which is administered by the PA Department of Agriculture. In order to encourage or prioritize implementing agricultural easements, municipalities can create designated funds from bonds or earned income tax to fund additional preservation. This would require a municipal referendum.
Landowners who do not what to directly farm their properties can rent out their land through agricultural leases. These leases should be carefully drafted to best represent the interests of the municipality or landowner and protect natural resources. The lease should require that the tenant have, and implement, an NRCS conservation plan created for the leased area. The lease can also require certain best management practices such as basing fertilizer use off annual soil tests and maintaining records of fertilizer, pesticide, herbicide, and lime use. It can hold the farmer responsible for addressing issues caused by agricultural practices such as erosion channels or chemical spills. The lease can also restrict the farmer in how they can alter the natural resources within the leased area.
Monitoring native plants and natural areas within human-engineered landscapes can provide insights into how well restoration or reclamation actions are proceeding and to see if these landscapes are supporting pollinators and other wildlife. More intensive stewardship, such as restoration of strip mine areas, will call for more extensive monitoring compared to smaller projects such as conversion of roadsides to native plants.
General options for monitoring can include:
If a link is broken, try searching on the keyword string preceding the link.
Adams, Mary Beth, ed. 2017. The Forestry Reclamation Approach: guide to successful reforestation of mined lands. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-169. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 128 p. https://doi.org/10.2737/NRS-GTR-169
Audubon International, Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program for Golf (https://auduboninternational.org/acsp-for-golf/, as of 2024)
Audubon International, Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program Certifications (cemeteries, golf courses, etc) (https://www.auduboninternational.org/audubon-cooperative-sanctuary-program, as of 2024)
DEP Well Plugging Program (https://www.dep.pa.gov/Business/Energy/OilandGasPrograms/OilandGasMgmt/LegacyWells/Pages/Well-Plugging-Program.aspx, as of 2024)
Ernst Seeds. Creating Low-Impact Solar Energy Installation Sites with Native Seed Mixes.(https://www.ernstseed.com/solar-energy-farms/, as of 2024)
Ecological Landscape Alliance. Are Flowering Landscapes on Solar Farms Part of the Future of Pollinator Conservation? (https://www.ecolandscaping.org/06/designing-ecological-landscapes/native-plants/are-flowering-landscapes-on-solar-farms-part-of-the-future-of-pollinator-conservation/, as of 2024)
Homegrown National Park (converting lawn to native plants) (https://homegrownnationalpark.org/, as of 2024)
New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Green Lawns and Gardens Resources (www.dec.ny.gov/public/52584.html, as of 2024)
Northeast Organic Farming Association, Organic Lawn Care Program (www.organiclandcare.net, as of 2024)
Rathfon, R.; Groninger, J.; Jacobs, D.F.; Burger, J.A.; Angel, P.N.; Zipper, C.E. 2015. Tree and shrub species selection for mine reclamation in the midwest region of USA. ARRI Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 13. Pittsburgh, PA: Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative. 12 p. Available at https://www.osmre.gov/programs/arri/publications (accessed September 18, 2016).
Rodale Institute (agriculture) (https://rodaleinstitute.org/ as of 2024)
The Nature Conservancy. Native Plant Installation and Maintenance for Solar Sites. (https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/Native-Plant-Management-at-Solar-Sites.pdf, as of 2024)
PA Department of Environmental Protection. Chapter 102 Permitting for Solar Panel Farms.(https://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/BPNPSM/StormwaterManagement/ConstructionStormwater/Solar_Panel_Farms_FAQ.pdf, as of 2024)
US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Organic Agriculture (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/getting-assistance/other-topics/organic, as of 2024)